The only way to overcome alienation is for workers to collectively abolish their separation from ownership and control of the means ofproduction, and to use that control to abolish the market and replace it with conscious planning for human need.

An X Mark Between Marx and Markets

(The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence)

“In artificial intelligence research, commonsense knowledge is the collection of facts and information that an ordinary person is expected to know. The commonsense knowledge problem is the ongoing project in the field of knowledge representation (a sub-field of artificial intelligence) to create a commonsense knowledge base: a database containing all the general knowledge that most people possess, represented in a way that it is available to artificial intelligence programs that use natural language or make inferences about the ordinary world” .

Historically, human intellectual labour begins as semantic labour (natural signs could be regarded as analogous to objects of labour provided by nature) (Warner, 2001b). Over time, and through collective human endeavour, semantic labour can be transformed into syntactic labour, which can reduce the direct human intellectual labour required for semiotic processes. Particularly since the late 19th century, syntactic labour can be modelled and executed mechanically. In these processes of transformation, from spoken to written language, and, further, in computational modelling, a degree of exactness has to be imposed, which may reduce the vitality of the field. In the transformation to computable form, greater exactness is demanded (and this may expose as imperfect formalisations previously accepted as self-consistent). To interpret the results of these syntactic transformations, human semantic labour is required and the cycle is renewed.

Within the context of human knowledge in general, Binwal and Lalhmachhuana (2001) define “knowledge representation as a systematic way of codifying human knowledge” and affirm that any knowledge representation system requires an ontological commitment as to what set of concepts is to be used in representing some aspect of the world. They further argue that ‘a central part of knowledge representation consists of elaborating: (1) a set of abstract objects; (2) concepts and other entities; and (3) the relations that may hold between them.” In a related point of view, Gärdenfors (2000)  argues that the central question for any theory of knowledge  representation is how concepts should be modeled.

Michel Pecheux links disidentification specifically with the Marxist-Leninist tradition stemming from the epistemological break with idealist philosophical discourse which Marx achieved by occupying a materialist, proletarian position. But the concept is useful in analysing the relationship of discourse and ideology to class struggle and in accounting for subjectivities which are situated contradictorily across class, race, gender, and other sociopolitical divisions. Disidentification is possible, according to Pecheux’s theory, because “meaning is determined by the ideological positions brought into play in the socio-historical process in which words, expressions, propositions, etc. are produced (i. e. reproduced).” “This thesis,” Pecheux continues, “could be summed up in the statement: words, expressions, propositions, etc. change their meaning according to the positions held by those who use them, which signifies that they find their meaning by reference to those positions” (Pecheux 98-ff; 112, author’s emphasis). In Pecheux’s materialist linguistics, that is, it is the subject’s position within a particular discursive formation that determines meaning, rather than the subject’s intent (the ideological and discursive formations supply the assumptions about intent which appear to determine meaning) or, even, necessarily, the conventional meanings valorized by the dominant ideology.

The Global Censorship Debate

As Lenin writes in his book What is to Be Done, “Working-class consciousness cannot be genuine political consciousness unless the workers are trained to respond to all cases of tyranny, oppression, violence, and abuse, no matter what class is affected.”

. An ideology is a set of ideas that directs one’s goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things (compare worldview), as in common sense (see Ideology in everyday society below) and several philosophical tendencies (see Political ideologies), or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to all members of this society (a ‘received consciousness’ or product of socialization). The main purpose behind an ideology is to offer change in society, and adherence to a set of ideals where conformity already exists, through a normative thought process. Ideologies are systems of abstract thought (as opposed to mere ideation) applied to public matters and thus make this concept central to politics. Implicitly every political tendency entails an ideology whether or not it is propounded as an explicit system of thought.

. In classical logic, a contradiction consists of a logical incompatibility between two or more propositions. It occurs when the propositions, taken together, yield two conclusions which form the logical, usually opposite inversions of each other. Illustrating a general tendency in applied logic, Aristotle’s law of noncontradiction states that “One cannot say of something that it is and that it is not in the same respect and at the same time.”

. In dialectical materialism, contradiction, as derived by Karl Marx from Hegelianism, usually refers to an opposition inherently existing within one realm, one unified force or object. This contradiction, as opposed to metaphysical thinking, is not an objectively impossible thing, because these contradicting forces exist in objective reality, not cancelling each other out, but actually defining each others existence. According to Marxist theory, such a contradiction can be found, for example, in the fact that (a) enormous wealth and productive powers coexist alongside (b) extreme poverty and misery, the existence of (a) being contrary to the existence of (b). Hegelian and Marxist theory stipulates that the dialectic nature of history will lead to the sublation, or synthesis, of its contradictions. Marx therefore postulated that history would “logically” make capitalism evolve into a socialist society where the means of production would equally serve the exploited and suffering class of society, thus resolving the prior contradiction between (a) and (b).

.A pragmatic contradiction occurs when the very statement of the argument contradicts the claims it purports. An inconsistency arises, in this case, because the act of utterance, rather than the content of what is said, undermines its conclusion.[7]  For examples, Heraclitus’s proposition that knowledge is impossible; or, arguably, Nietzsche’s statement that one should not obey others, or Moore’s paradox. These are self-refuting statements and performative contradictions.

Analysis

Meta-ideology is the study of the structure, form, and manifestation of ideologies. Meta-ideology posits that ideology is a coherent system of ideas, relying upon a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis, but are subjective choices that serve as the seed around which further thought grows. According to this perspective, ideologies are neither right nor wrong, but only a relativistic intellectual strategy for categorizing the world. The pluses and minuses of ideology range from the vigor and fervor of true believers to ideological infallibility. Excessive need for certitude lurks at fundamentalist levels in politics and religions.

The works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, done under the heading of systematic ideology, are attempts to explore the relationships between ideology and social systems.

David W. Minar describes six different ways in which the word “ideology” has been used:

1. As a collection of certain ideas with certain kinds of content, usually normative;
2. As the form or internal logical structure that ideas have within a set;
3. By the role in which ideas play in human-social interaction;
4. By the role that ideas play in the structure of an organization;
5. As meaning, whose purpose is persuasion; and
6. As the locus of social interaction, possibly.

For Willard A. Mullins, an ideology is composed of four basic characteristics:

1. it must have power over cognition
2. it must be capable of guiding one’s evaluations;
3. it must provide guidance towards action;
4. and, as stated above, must be logically coherent.

Mullins emphasizes that an ideology should be contrasted with the related (but different) issues of utopia and historical myth.

The German philosopher Christian Duncker called for a “critical reflection of the ideology concept” (2006). In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology into the foreground, as well as the closely connected concerns of epistemology and history. In this work, the term ideology is defined in terms of a system of presentations that explicitly or implicitly claim to absolute truth.

Karl Marx posits that a society’s dominant ideology is integral to its superstructure.

In the Marxist economic base and superstructure model of society, base denotes the relations of production, and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology (religious, legal, political systems). The economic base of production determines the political superstructure of a society. Ruling class-interests determine the superstructure and the nature of the justifying ideology — actions feasible because the ruling class control the means of production. Hence the great importance of the ideology justifying a society; it politically confuses the alienated groups of society via false consciousness, such as in the case of commodity fetishism — the belief that value is inherent to a commodity, rather than external, added to it via labor.

The ruling class affect their social reproduction by the dominant ideology’s representing — to every social-economic class — that the economic interests of the ruling class are the economic interests of the entire society. Some explanations, György Lukács proposes ideology as a projection of the class consciousness of the ruling class. Antonio Gramsci uses cultural hegemony to explain why the working-class have a false ideological conception of what are their best interests.

. Autonomist Marxism

Autonomism is a term applied to a variety of social movements around the world, which emphasizes the ability to organize in autonomous and horizontal networks, as opposed to hierarchical structures such as unions or parties. Autonomist Marxists, including Harry Cleaver, broaden the definition of the working-class to include salaried and unpaid labour, such as skilled professions and housework; it focuses on the working class in advanced capitalist states as the primary force of change in the construct of capital. Modern autonomist theorists such as Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt argue that network power constructs are the most effective methods of organization against the neoliberal regime of accumulation, and predict a massive shift in the dynamics of capital into a 21st Century Empire.

.Key Western Marxists

. Georg Lukács

. Georg Lukács (April 13, 1885 – June 4, 1971) was a Hungarian Marxist philosopher and literary critic in the tradition of Western Marxism. His main work History and Class Consciousness (written between 1919 and 1922 and first published in 1923), initiated the current of thought that came to be known as Western Marxism. The book is notable for contributing to debates concerning Marxism and its relation to sociology, politics and philosophy, and for reconstructing Marx’s theory of alienation before many of the works of the Young Marx had been published. Lukács’s work elaborates and expands upon Marxist theories such as ideology, false consciousness, reification and class consciousness.

. Louis Althusser

Louis Althusser (October 16, 1918 – October 22, 1990) was a Marxist philosopher. He was a lifelong member and sometimes strong critic of the French Communist Party. His arguments and theses were set against the threats that he saw attacking the theoretical foundations of Marxism. These included both the influence of empiricism on Marxist theory, and humanist and reformist socialist orientations which manifested as divisions in the European Communist Parties, as well as the problem of the ‘cult of personality’ and of ideology itself.Althusser is also widely known as a theorist of ideology, and his best-known essay is Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses: Notes Toward an Investigation.[24]
.The essay establishes the concept of ideology, also based on Gramsci’s theory of hegemony. Whereas hegemony is ultimately determined entirely by political forces, ideology draws on Freud’s and Lacan’s  concepts of the unconscious and mirror-phase respectively, and describes the structures and systems that allow us to meaningfully have a concept of the self.

A persona, in the word everyday usage, is a social role or a character  played by an actor. This is an Italian  word that derives from the Latin for “mask” or “character”, derived from the Etruscan word “phersu”, with the same meaning. Popular etymology derives the word from Latin “per” meaning “through” and “sonare” meaning “to sound”, meaning something in the vein of “that through which the actor speaks”, i.e. a mask (early Greek actors wore masks).

The persona is also the mask or appearance one presents to the world.[1]  It may appear in dreams under various guises (see Carl Jung and his psychology). Importantly, the persona, used in this sense, is not a pose or some other intentional misrepresentation of the self to others. Rather, it is the self as self-construed, and may change according to situation and context.

To sum up, a persona can, broadly-speaking, be understood as the “organizing consciousness” of the narrative. This clearly differentiates it from any characters, even major and well-developed ones, who do not steer the reader’s perspective on the proceedings. However, in some very well-defined cases, the question might arise: Why bother positing an organizing consciousness, understood on some level to be separate from that of the author, at all? Different schools of criticism will have differing answers to this question, and some — the post-structuralist school, for instance — might take issue with the very notion of a single organizing consciousness. But in general, the practice is adopted as a handy way of understanding the guiding principles of a work without treading too far into disputes about what a particular author was “really like” or “really thought about things” in his or her own personal life.

Charles Dickens and William Blake, for instance, were widely known to have progressive attitudes regarding the difficulties faced by the working classes in Victorian England and the effect of England’s industrial revolution on contemporary life, respectively, and their attitudes were clearly reflected in their work. Furthermore, if the interpretation of a work is taken to be fundamentally the process of deciphering an author’s personal feelings about various subjects — an attempt to understand the mens auctoris (mind of the author) — then it might be argued that literary criticism thereby degenerates into a kind of pseudo-psychoanalysis, leaving little room for consideration of the works themselves. Finally, and for similar reasons, the narrator-as-personation allows for greater interpretive latitude, and thus arguably richer interpretive possibilities, than a more strictly authorially-centered approach might.
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Personas are fictional characters created to represent the different user types within a targeted demographic that might use a site or product. Personas are useful in considering the goals, desires, and limitations of the users in order to help to guide decisions about a product, such as features, interactions, and visual design. Personas are most often used as part of a user-centered design process for designing software and are also considered a part of interaction design (IxD), have been used in industrial design and more recently for online marketing purposes.[1]

A user persona is a representation of the goals and behavior of a real group of users. In most cases, personas are synthesized from data collected from interviews with users. They are captured in 1–2 page descriptions that include behavior patterns, goals, skills, attitudes, and environment, with a few fictional personal details to make the persona a realistic character. For each product, more than one persona is usually created, but one persona should always be the primary focus for the design.

The use of personas as a technique was popularized by Alan Cooper in his 1999 book The Inmates are Running the Asylum. The book outlines the general characteristics, uses, and best practices for creating personas.[2]

An concept in Economics and used in Marketing. A market segment is a sub-set of a market made up of people or organiztions sharing one or more characteristics that cause them to demand similar product and/or services based on qualities of those products such as price or function. A true market segment meets all of the following criteria: it is distinct from other segments (different segments have different needs), it is homogeneous within the segment (exhibits common needs); it responds similarly to a market stimulus, and it can be reached by a market intervention. The term is also used when consumers with identical product and/or service needs are divided up into groups so they can be charged different amounts. These can broadly be viewed as ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ applications of the same idea, splitting up the market into smaller groups.

Personalized marketing (also called personalization, and sometimes called one-to-one marketing) is an extreme form of product differentiation. Whereas product differentiation tries to differentiate a product from competing ones, personalization tries to make a unique product offering for each customer.

Personalized marketing had been most practical in interactive media such as the internet. A web site can track a customer’s interests and make suggestions for the future. Many sites help customers make choices by organizing information and prioritizing it based on the individual’s liking. In some cases, the product itself can be customized using a configuration system.

Contextual advertising is a form of targeted advertising for advertisements appearing on websites or other media, such as content displayed in mobile browsers. The advertisements themselves are selected and served by automated systems based on the content displayed to the user.

A contextual advertising system scans the text of a website for keywords  and returns advertisements to the webpage based on what the user is viewing.[1]  The advertisements may be displayed on the webpage or as pop-up ads. For example, if the user is viewing a website pertaining to sports and that website uses contextual advertising, the user may see advertisements for sports-related companies, such as memorabilia dealers or ticket sellers. Contextual advertising is also used by search engines to display advertisements on their search results pages based on the keywords in the user’s query.
[edit] Service providers

Google AdSense was the first major contextual advertising program. It works by providing webmasters with JavaScript code that, when inserted into webpages, displays relevant advertisements from the Google inventory of advertisers. The relevance is calculated by a separate Google bot, Mediabot, that indexes the content of a webpage. Recent technology/service providers have emerged with more sophisticated systems that use language-independent proximity pattern matching algorithm to increase matching accuracy.[2]

Contextual advertising has made a major impact on earnings of many websites. Because the advertisements are more targeted, they are more likely to be clicked, thus generating revenue for the owner of the website (and the server of the advertisement). A large part of Google’s earnings is from its share of the contextual advertisements served on the millions of webpages running the AdSense program.

Mediabot is the name given to the web crawler that Google uses to crawl webpages for purposes of analysing the content so Google AdSense can serve contextually relevant advertising to the page. Mediabot visits those pages running AdSense ads that have not blocked its access via a robots.txt file and it’s a Google recommendation that webmasters specifically add a command to their robots.txt file granting Mediabot access to the entire site.

The Mediabot revisits pages on a regular, but unpredictable basis. Changes made to a page therefore do not immediately cause changes to the ads displayed on the page. Note that ads can still be shown on a page even if the Mediabot has not yet visited it, in which case the ads chosen will be based on the overall theme of the other pages on the site. If no ads can be chosen, public service announcements are displayed instead.

Artificial Intelligence Marketing (AIM) is a form of Direct marketing leveraging Database marketing techniques as well as AI concept and model such as Machine Learning and Bayesian Network. The main difference resides in the reasoning part which suggests it is performed by computer and algorithm instead of human.

Artificial Intelligence Marketing principle is based on the Perception-Reasoning-action cycle you find in Cognitive science. In marketing context this cycle is adapted to form the collect, reason and act cycle.
Collect.
This term relates to all activities which aims at capturing customer or prospect data. Whether taken online or offline these data are then saved into customer or prospect databases.
Reason
This is the part where data is transformed into information and eventually intelligence or Insight. This is the section where Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in particular have a key role to play.
Act
With the intelligence gathered from the reason step above you can then act. In Marketing context act would be some sort of communications that would attempt to influence a prospect or customer purchase decision using incentive driven message

Again Artificial Intelligence has a role to play in this stage as well. Ultimately in an unsupervised model the machine would take the decision and act accordingly to the information it receives at the collect stage.

Machine Learning is concerned with the design and development of algorithms  and techniques that allow computers to “learn”. As defined above Machine Learning is one of the techniques that can be employed to enable more effective behavioral targeting.

In computer science and information science, an ontology is a formal representation of a set of concepts within a domain and the relationships between those concepts. It is used to reason about the properties of that domain, and may be used to define the domain.

In theory, an ontology is a “formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualisation”.[1] An ontology provides a shared vocabulary, which can be used to model a domain — that is, the type of objects and/or concepts that exist, and their properties and relations.[2]

Historically, ontologies arise out of the branch of philosophy  known as metaphysics, which deals with the nature of reality – of what exists. This fundamental branch is concerned with analyzing various types or modes of existence, often with special attention to the relations between particulars  and universals, between intrinsic and extrinsic properties, and between essence and existence. The traditional goal of ontological inquiry in particular is to divide the world “at its joints”, to discover those fundamental categories, or kinds, into which the world’s objects naturally fall.[5]

During the second half of the 20th century, philosophers extensively debated the possible methods or approaches to building ontologies, without actually building any very elaborate ontologies themselves. By contrast, computer scientists were building some large and robust ontologies (such as WordNet and Cyc) with comparatively little debate over how they were built.

Since the mid-1970s, researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have recognized that capturing knowledge is the key to building large and powerful AI systems. AI researchers argued that they could create new ontologies as computational models that enable certain kinds of automated reasoning. In the 1980s, the AI community began to use the term ontology to refer to both a theory of a modeled world and a component of knowledge systems. Some researchers, drawing inspiration from philosophical ontologies, viewed computational ontology as a kind of applied philosophy.[6]

Automated reasoning is an area of computer science dedicated to understanding different aspects of reasoning in a way that allows the creation of software which allows computers to reason completely or nearly completely, automatically. As such, it is usually considered a subfield of artificial intelligence, but it also has strong connections to theoretical computer science and even philosophy.

The most developed subareas of automated reasoning probably are automated theorem proving (and the less automated but more pragmatic subfield of interactive theorem proving) and automated proof checking (viewed as guaranteed correct reasoning under fixed assumptions), but extensive work has also been done in reasoning by analogy induction and abduction. Other important topics are reasoning under uncertainty and non-monotonic reasoning. An important part of the uncertainty field is that of argumentation, where further constraints of minimality and consistency are applied on top of the more standard automated deduction. John Pollock’s Oscar system is an example of an automated argumentation system that is more specific than being just an automated theorem prover.

Tools and techniques include the classical logics and calculi from automated theorem proving, but also fuzzy logic, Bayesian inference, reasoning with maximal entropy and a large number of less formal ad-hoc technique.

Marxism is a particular political philosophy, economic  and sociological worldview based upon a materialist interpretation of history, a Marxist analysis of capitalism, a theory of social change, and an atheist view of human liberation derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The three primary aspects of Marxism are:

1. The dialectical and materialist concept of history — Humankind’s history is fundamentally that of the struggle between social classes. The productive capacity of society is the foundation of society, and as this capacity increases over time the social relations of production, class relations, evolve through this struggle of the classes and pass through definite stages (primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism). The legal, political, ideological and other aspects (ex. art) of society are derived from these production relations as is the consciousness of the individuals of which the society is composed.

2. The critique of capitalism — In capitalist society, an economic minority (the bourgeoisie) dominate and exploit the working class (proletariat) majority. Marx uncovered the interworkings of capitalist exploitation, the specific way in which unpaid labor (surplus value) is extracted from the working class (the labor theory of value), extending and critiquing the work of earlier political economists on value. Although the production process is socialized, ownership remains in the hand of the bourgeoisie. This forms the fundamental contradiction of capitalist society. Without the elimination of the fetter of the private ownership of the means of production, human society is unable to achieve further development.

3. Advocacy of proletarian revolution — In order to overcome the fetters of private property the working class must seize political power internationally through a social revolution and expropriate the capitalist classes around the world and place the productive capacities of society into collective ownership. Upon this, material foundation classes would be abolished and the material basis for all forms of inequality between humankind would dissolve.

Exploitation

A person is exploited if he or she performs more labour than necessary to produce the goods society consumes; likewise, a person is an exploiter if he or she performs less labour than is necessary to produce goods.[6] Exploitation is a matter of surplus labour — the amount of labour one performs beyond what one receives in goods. Exploitation has been a socio-economic feature of every class society, and is one of the principal features distinguishing the social classes. The power of one social class to control the means of production enables its exploitation of the other classes.

In capitalism, the labour theory of value is the operative concern; the value of a commodity equals the total labour time required to produce it. Under that condition, surplus value (the difference between the value produced and the value received by a labourer) is synonymous with the term “surplus labour”; thus, capitalist exploitation is realised as deriving surplus value from the worker.

In pre-capitalist economies, exploitation of the worker was achieved via physical coercion. In the capitalist mode of production, that result is more subtly achieved; because the worker does not own the means of production, he or she must voluntarily enter into an exploitive work relationship with a capitalist in order to earn the necessities of life. The worker’s entry into such employment is voluntary in that he or she chooses which capitalist to work for; the worker must work or starve, thus exploitation is inevitable, and the voluntarism of capitalist exploitation is illusory.

Alienation

Alienation denotes the estrangement of people from their humanity (German: Gattungswesen, “species-essence”, “species-being”), which is a systematic result of capitalism. Under capitalism, the fruits of production belong to the employers, who expropriate the surplus created by others, and so generate alienated labourers.[7] Alienation objectively describes the worker’s situation in capitalism — his or her self-awareness of this condition is unnecessary.

According to Karl Marx, alienation is a systemic result of capitalism. Marx’s Theory of Alienation is founded upon his observation that in emerging industrial production under capitalism, workers inevitably lose control over their lives and destinies by being deprived of control over their actions. Workers never become autonomous, self-realized human beings, but are directed, diverted, into the ways in which the bourgeois want workers to behave. Alienation in capitalist  societies occurs because in work each contributes to the common wealth, but can only express this fundamentally social aspect of individuality through a production system that is not publicly (socially), but privately owned, and for which each individual functions, not as a social being, but as an instrument:

Marx’s Theory of Alienation

Workers never become autonomous, self-realized human beings, but are directed, diverted, into the ways in which the bourgeois want workers to behave.

Alienation in capitalist  societies occurs because in work each contributes to the common wealth, but can only express this fundamentally social aspect of individuality through a production system that is not publicly (socially), but privately owned, and for which each individual functions, not as a social being, but as an instrument:

Automated reasoning is an area of computer science dedicated to understanding different aspects of reasoning in a way that allows the creation of software which allows computers to reason completely or nearly completely, automatically.

The illusion of ConSciousness  is the reality of ConSciousness.

Coh-Metrix is a computational tool that produces indices of the linguistic and discourse representations of a text. These values can be used in many different ways to investigate the cohesion of the explicit text and the coherence of the mental representation of the text.

False consciousness is the Marxist thesis that material  and institutional processes in capitalist  society are misleading to the proletariat, and to other classes. These processes betray the true relations of forces between those classes, and the real state of affairs regarding the development of pre-socialist society (relative to the secular development of human society in general).

This is essentially a result of ideological control which the proletariat either do not know they are under or disregard with a view to their own POUM (probability/possibility of upward mobility)[1]. POUM (not to be confused with the Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification, POUM) or something like it is required in economics with its presumption of rational agency; otherwise wage laborers would be the conscious supporters of social relations antithetical to their own interests, violating that presumption[2].

The alienation  felt by the workers would leave either to ineffective trade union movements, or deepen class struggles resulting in the victory of the Proletariat.

*  In knowledge representation, reification is sometimes used to represent facts that must then be manipulated in some way, for example to compare logical assertions from different witnesses  to determine their credibility. The message “John is six feet tall” is an assertion of truth that commits the sender to the fact, whereas the reified statement, “Mary reports that John is six feet tall” defers this commitment to Mary. In this way, the statements can be incompatible without creating contradictions in reasoning. For example the statements “John is six feet tall” and “John is five feet tall” are incompatible with each other; the statements “Mary reports that John is six feet tall” and “Paul reports that John is five feet tall” are not incompatible with each other, since they are both compatible with the assumption that at least one of them doesn’t say the truth about Paul or Mary’s report, or that Mary or Paul is mistaken or lying.

* Reification is a term used in computer science and artificial intelligence to describe the act of making a data model for a previously abstract concept. Reification allows a computer to process an abstraction as if it were any other data. See also refinement and Ontology (computer science).

* In Marxism, the consideration of a human being as a physical object, deprived of subjectivity.

* In natural language processing, reification can refer to where a natural language statement is transformed so actions and events in it become quantifiable variables. For example “John chased the duck furiously” can be transformed into something like “(Exists e)(chasing(e) & past_tense(e) & actor(e,John) & furiously(e) & patient(e,duck))”. Another example would be “Sally said John is mean”, which could be expressed as something like “(Exists u,v)(saying(u) & past_tense(u) & actor(u,Sally) & that(u,v) & is(v) & actor(v,John) & mean(v))”.

Automated Marxism and Financial Markets…

Automated and Intelligent (A.I.) Trading is defined as Automated Trading using modern Artificial Intelligence approaches. A.I. trading is created to dedicate to the research and development of Automated and Intelligent (A.I.) Trading in financial markets by Chenghui Cai on October 07, 2009. Its purpose is to provide a communication platform and study resource for people of common interests in A.I. trading and to cultivate an atmosphere of related academic research. Its ultimate mission is to (1) eliminate or greatly mitigate the information asymmetry between informed traders and non-informed ordinary investors like you and me by intelligently mining financial data/information; and (2) to enable most people, even the non-professional, to enjoy the applications of Artificial Intelligence to financial investments, e.g., trading, by providing cheap and easily understandable tools.

Automated and Intelligent (A.I.) Marxism is defined as modern Artificial Intelligence using Marxist approaches. A.I. trading is created to dedicate to the research and development of Automated and Intelligent (A.I.) Trading in financial markets by Chenghui Cai on October 07, 2009. Its purpose is to provide a communication platform and study resource for people of common interests in A.I. trading and to cultivate an atmosphere of related academic research. Its ultimate mission is to (1) eliminate or greatly mitigate the information asymmetry between informed traders and non-informed ordinary investors like you and me by intelligently mining financial data/information; and (2) to enable most people, even the non-professional, to enjoy the applications of Artificial Intelligence to financial investments, e.g., trading, by providing cheap and easily understandable tools.

. Concept learning

Concept learning, also known as category learning and concept attainment, is largely based on the works of the cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner. Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin (1967) defined concept attainment (or concept learning) as “the search for and listing of attributes that can be used to distinguish exemplars from non exemplars of various categories.” More simply put, concepts are the mental categories that help us classify objects, events, or ideas and each object, event, or idea has a set of common relevant features. Thus, concept learning is a strategy which requires a learner to compare and contrast groups or categories that contain concept-relevant features with groups or categories that do not contain concept-relevant features.

Concept learning also refers to a learning task in which a human or machine learner is trained to classify objects by being shown a set of example objects along with their class labels. The learner will simplify what has been observed in an example. This simplified version of what has been learned will then be applied to future examples. Concept learning ranges in simplicity and complexity because learning takes place over many areas. When a concept is more difficult, it will be less likely that the learner will be able to simplify, and therefore they will be less likely to learn. Colloquially, this task is known as learning from examples. Most theories of concept learning are based on the storage of exemplars and avoid summarization or overt abstraction of any kind.

. Machine Learning Approaches to Concept Learning

This is a budding field due to recent progress in algorithms, computational power, and the expansion of information on the internet. Unlike the situation in Psychology, the problem of concept learning within machine learning is not one of finding the “right” theory of concept learning, but one of finding the most effective method for a given task. As such, there has been a huge proliferation of concept learning theories. In the machine learning literature, this concept learning is more typically called supervised learning or supervised classification, in contrast to unsupervised learning or unsupervised classification, in which the learner is not provided with class labels. In machine learning, algorithms of in Exemplar theory are also known as instance learners or lazy learners.

There are three important roles for machine learning.

1. Data Mining: this is using historical data to improve decisions. An example is looking at medical records and applying it to medical knowledge when making a diagnoses.

2. Software applications that we cannot program by hand: Examples of this are autonomous driving and speech recognition

3. Self-customizing programs: An example of this is a newsreader that learns a readers particular interests and highlights these when the reader visits the site.

Machine learning has an exciting future. Some future advantages include; learning across full mixed-media data, learning across multiple internal databases (including the internet and newsfeeds), learning by active experimentation, learning decisions rather than predictions, and the possibility of programming languages with

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